Introduction

Contributor’s material

Neurodiversity, a term that was first coined by Judy Singer in 1990^[1], refers to the natural variations in human brain function and behavioral traits. This concept recognizes that neurological differences, such as those seen in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), dyslexia, and other conditions, are normal variations of the human genome. Rather than viewing these differences as deficits or disorders to be corrected, the neurodiversity framework acknowledges them as part of the normal variation in how people think, learn, and experience the world.^[2]

Neurodiversity is made up of two categories:

Neurotypical: Individuals whose cognitive and behavioral development generally fits within the dominant societal expectations. These individuals tend to acquire skills such as communication, organization, and social interaction at similar rates and in comparable ways to the majority of their peers.

Neurodivergent: Individuals whose brains process information in ways that differ from what is typically expected for their age group. These differences are not inherently negative or pathological; rather, they represent natural variations in brain function relative to the broader population.^[3] There are two types of neurodivergence, the visible and non-visible traits.

Visible Neurodivergence
Some neurodivergent traits are quite noticeable—physical tics, repetitive movements (stimming), challenges with verbal communication, or heightened sensitivity to environmental factors like sound and light. Students with these visible characteristics are often identified for additional support more quickly. Yet, such visibility can also expose them to misunderstanding, stigma, or even exclusion among their peers. Educators need to acknowledge and address the social and emotional difficulties these students may encounter, ensuring that being visibly neurodivergent does not result in marginalization.

Non-Visible Neurodivergence
On the other hand, not all neurodivergent students display outward signs of their differences. Many navigate school life while masking their traits or managing challenges that are not immediately apparent to others. These students may wrestle with issues related to attention, anxiety, memory, language, or executive functioning—yet still appear to be coping well on the surface. Recognizing and supporting non-visible neurodivergence is critical to fostering inclusive classrooms that accommodate all learners, rather than focusing solely on those with obvious or formally diagnosed traits.

Neurodiversity invites us to redefine what is “normal“ in learning, behavior, and communication. In the same ways individuals differ by culture, language, and experience, they also differ in how their brains navigate the world. Neurodivergent learners are commonly underserved by standard education systems, not for a lack of ability, but because those systems are not planned with their needs at the forefront. Teachers are invited in this chapter to view neurodiversity as the intrinsic and positive side of human variation and to adopt inclusive practices that affirm, support, and empower all learners.

Student voices

TERMS

Double Empathy Problem

A theory stating that communication difficulties between autistic and non-autistic people are mutual misunderstandings, not just social deficits in the autistic person^[4].

Executive Dysfunction

Difficulty with planning, memory, focus, and task initiation — often associated with ADHD, autism, and learning differences.

Hyperfocus

Intense and sustained concentration on one activity, common in ADHD and autism. Can be productive but may cause missed cues or exhaustion.

Masking

The suppression or hiding of neurodivergent traits to appear neurotypical, often leading to stress or burnout. Especially common among autistic individuals.

Monotropism

A model suggesting autistic individuals focus their attention deeply on a few interests at a time, making transitions and multitasking more difficult.^[5]

Neurodivergent

Describes individuals whose neurological development differs from what is considered typical.

Neurodivergent Burnout

Chronic exhaustion and sensory/emotional overload experienced by neurodivergent individuals, often due to masking or lack of accommodations.

Neurodivergent Profile

Variations in cognitive functioning, processing, and behavior that diverge from what is typically considered the norm.

Neurodiversity

The concept that brain differences are normal and should be recognized and respected as a form of diversity.

Neurotypical

A term used to describe individuals whose brain functions align with societal norms.

Pathological Demand Avoidance (PDA)

A proposed profile on the autism spectrum where individuals intensely avoid demands and expectations due to high anxiety.^[6]

Sensory Processing Differences

Variations in how people experience input like sound, light, or touch. Can result in sensory overload or seeking behavior.

Stimming (Self-Stimulatory Behavior)

Repetitive movements or sounds that help regulate sensory input or emotional state, like rocking or hand-flapping.

Common Neurodivergent Profiles:

• Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

• Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

• Dyscalculia

• Dysgraphia

• Dyslexia

• Dyspraxia

• Epilepsy

• Intellectual Disabilities

• Nonverbal Learning Disability (NVLD)

• Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

• Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD)

• Tourette Syndrome

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

A condition that is characterized by persistent patterns of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interfere with functioning or development. Individuals may present predominantly inattentive symptoms, hyperactive-impulsive symptoms, or a combination of both.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

A range of neurodevelopmental presentations affecting social communication, interaction, and sensory processing. Individuals often demonstrate focused interests and particular strengths alongside these challenges.

Dyscalculia

A learning disorder that impairs the acquisition of math skills, understanding of numerical concepts, and calculations.

Dysgraphia

A condition that impacts handwriting, spelling, and the physical act of writing.

Dyslexia

A language-based learning difference that makes reading, spelling, and decoding text more difficult, often with strong problem-solving or creative thinking abilities.

Dyspraxia (Developmental Coordination Disorder)

A disorder that affects physical coordination and planning of movements, and may also influence speech and fine motor skills.

Epilepsy

A neurological condition involving recurrent seizures, which can impact memory, learning, and concentration depending on the type and frequency.

Intellectual Disabilities Conditions

Below-average intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviors, often requiring support in daily living and learning environments.

Nonverbal Learning Disability (NVLD)

A condition that affects spatial reasoning, motor skills, and interpretation of nonverbal cues, with verbal abilities often remaining strong.

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

A condition involving intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions) used to manage anxiety or distress.

Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD)

A condition in which the brain has trouble receiving and responding to information from the senses, leading to hypersensitivity or hyposensitivity.

Tourette Syndrome

A neurological condition involving involuntary movements and vocalizations called tics, which can vary in frequency and intensity.

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